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More than a hundred years ago, after World War I, the United States and Japan were in conflict and confrontation. In this situation, the world paid attention to the US President Harding's proposal to hold the Washington Conference to discuss issues related to East Asia and the Pacific region. The nationalists in Korea were no exception. At that time, the Korean Commission to America and Europe and the Provisional Government of Shanghai were experiencing recession and internal division. They thought the Washington conference was a good opportunity to fix the crisis that had hit them and regain the initiative of the independence movement. The academic community has been interested in the relationship between the Washington Conference and the Korean National Movement since early on, but it is true that there have not been many comprehensive studies on it. I have heard from Professor Ko Jeong-hyu who has been studying the Korean National Movement, the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea and founding the Republic of Korea since the mid-1980s about the Washington Conference(1921-22).

interviewer | Seo Jong-jin, Research Fellow of Institute on Korea-Japan Historical Issues at NAHF

Q1. The Washington Treaty System is known as the basic framework for international order in the Asia-Pacific region after World War I. Please explain the background of the Washington Treaty System and the Washington conference.

The Washington Conference was an international conference held in Washington, DC, the capital of the United States from November 12, 1921 to February 6, 1922. One of the agendas of this conference was the naval armament reduction issue, so it is called the Washington Disarmament Conference. At that time, the "Dong-A Ilbo" or "Chosun Ilbo" in Korea called it the "Pacific Conference". It is because all the problems in the Asia-Pacific region are known to be discussed comprehensively at the Washington Conference.

The Washington Treatment System refers to the international order of the Asia-Pacific region established as a result of the Washington Conference. This system was destroyed in September 1931 by Japan's invasion of Manchuria and the withdrawal of the League of Nations. Then the Sino-Japanese War and the Pacific War take place. We remember the Paris Peace Conference, mainly when we think about establishing a new international order after World War I. But the main agenda of this meeting was the European issue, where the war broke out. This is why the Washington Conference has dealt with issues in the Asia-Pacific region.

Q2. So what were the countries and the main agendas that were at the Washington conference?

The conference was attended by delegations from nine countries including the United States, Japan, Britain, France, Italy, China, Belgium, the Netherlands and Portugal. They are countries that are located in the Asia-Pacific region or have direct or indirect interests, such as having colonies in this region. The main agendas were: Chinese issues including the Shandong Peninsula, which was Germany's leisured territory; the Japanese military's withdrawal from Siberia; the existence of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance; and the reduction of the navy's arms.

Q3. The Washington Conference is known as the first “disarmament” meeting. I wonder what was decided about the Asia-Pacific region.

Well, I'm not sure if it was the first time, but there's an agreement on disarmament at the conference. That's 'Treaty between Five Powers' that agreed to limit and reduce the navy's armaments. As a result, the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan, France and Italy will maintain a capital ship of more than 10,000 tons at a ratio of 5:5:3:1.75:1.75.This agreement was made because the competition for building warships was a considerable burden on the finances of the countries.

They also agreed to scrap the Anglo-Japanese alliance, which was signed in 1902 and has been extended to five years. Instead, the Four Nations Treaty, including the United States and France, is signed. They respect each other's sovereignty over the islands of the Pacific, decide to resolve the dispute through a joint meeting, and discuss ways to deal with third-party invasions. It meant respecting and protecting each other's vested interests.

They also sign a nine-nation treaty on China. The treaty stipulates the Open Door Policy for China, which the United States has been insisting on since the end of the 19th century, with the consent of all participating countries of the Washington Conference. This makes the Open Door Policy effective as a treaty, not as a unilateral declaration of the United States. In addition, an agreement was signed between China and Japan on the return of the Shandong Peninsula. Between the United States and Japan, a Memorandum of Understanding was exchanged on the withdrawal of troops from Siberia and the strategic hub of the Pacific Ocean, Yab Island.

Q4. The Washington Treaty system was established as a result of the Washington Conference, and I wonder how it can evaluate its historical significance. Please explain the relationship with the U.S. and Japan.

The Asia-Pacific order is shaken by Japan's rise as a hegemony in East Asia after the Russo-Japanese War. After the Sino-Japanese War, 'Yellow Peril' from Europe will gain strength. Thus, as the United States checks Japan in earnest, the US-Japan conflict is openly in the media. Tensions between the two countries are lulled by the outbreak of World War I. However, Japan, participated in the war as a member of the Allied Powers, presents '21 demands' to Yuan Sky who ruled China at the time after occupying the Shandong Peninsula. They were trying to dramatically raise their rights in China, Manchuria and Mongolia when the European powers were participating in the war. At that time, the United States delivered a memorandum to the Japanese side saying, "If you sign an agreement with China that is opposed to our Open Door Policy, we will not approve it." It's a so-called disapproval policy.

The United States proposed a Washington conference to resolve these issues, and Japan reluctantly attended. As a result of this conference, the Western powers and Japan have established a mutual cooperation system in East Asia and the Pacific, ensuring mutual interests. President Harding of the United States said on the last day of the Washington Conference that we have achieved a diplomatic "new epoch" for world peace. There have been complaints within Japan about the outcome of the Washington conference. However, the Japanese government issued a statement saying it would faithfully implement the agreement. The basic direction of Japanese diplomacy at that time was 'cooperationism for the United States and Europe'. This led to the establishment of the Washington Treaty system.

Meanwhile, the First Congress of the Toilers of Far East, held in Moscow since January 1922, criticized the results of the Washington Conference. “We were in solidarity with the name of ‘the Vampire Alliance’ against the policies of Japanese imperialism, such as robbery.” The Washington Conference is not much different from the Paris Peace Conference in that it sought to consolidate their vested interests by concessions and compromises between the powers that won World War I. The problem of the colonial minorities was completely ignored.

「Document to petition for the independence of the Korean people(韓國人民致太平洋會議書)」 is 

a petition showing the desire for independence of the Korean people. 

Those who participated in the petition emphasized the necessity of Korean independence in each country's parliament,

saying, "If Korea's independence is not realized, world peace can not be expected."

And they sent this document to the South Korean delegation staying in Washington to support the delegation's activities.

(Collection: National Library of Korea)

Q5. Please explain the diplomatic activities of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea at that time in connection with the Washington Conference and Korea.

It has been announced that the Washington Conference will be held. Then, the Korean Commission to America and Europe, who were active in Washington DC, responded faster than anyone else. Seo Jae-pil, who was the interim chairman, wrote a letter to Lee Si-young, the finance minister of the provisional government in Shanghai. Since then, the provisional government has sent people to Korean communities in Korea, Manchuria and Siberia to raise funds and urge demonstrations. And send a special envoy to the Guangdong government, led by Sun Wen, to ask for political approval and loan. This was to raise the international status of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea and to secure finances to prepare for the Washington Conference. At that time, the Guangdong government was internally vulnerable, so the provisional government of Shanghai did not achieve the expected results.

Meanwhile, The Korean Mission, which was delegated to the full power by the provisional government of Shanghai, was established in the United States. The members were Rhee Syngman(the head of the delegation), Seo Jae-pil(delegate), Jung Han-kyung(clerk), Fred A. Dolph(advisor), and Charles S. Thomas, who served as Colorado governor and federal senator, joined as special legal advisers. They sent a letter to President Harding and demanded: (1) consider Korea part of the Pacific Ocean, (2) recognize Korea as an invaded country, (3) consider that Korea's independence is the basis for securing world peace, (4) allow the Korean delegation to participate in the Washington Conference and give them a say for reasons above.

The US government did not respond to requests from the Korean delegation. The US State Department's Far East Affairs Bureau has submitted the following comments to the Secretary of State:“Korea has no international status at present, and we have not had any diplomatic negotiations with the country since 1905.” Meanwhile, the Japanese government dispatched a delegation to the United States and ordered that "if any form of issue related to Joseon is submitted at the Washington Conference, you should firmly reject it." After all, the Korean delegation was unable to attend the Washington conference, and plans to put the Korean issue on the agenda failed.

Q6. Tell us about the impact of the Washington Conference on the Korean National Movement as a whole.

The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea in Shanghai, The Korean Commission to America and Europe has put its all-out effort into diplomacy at the Washington conference. But they were hit hard by nothing being done. Shortly after the conference, the Provisional Government cabinet announced its intention to resign because it could not settle the political situation. Seo Jae-pil, interim chairman of The Korean Commission to America and Europe, also resigned. The status of the interim president Rhee Seung-man has been shaken. In the end, this situation led to impeachment and dismissal of Rhee.

In Korea, the differentiation of left and right inside the ethnic camp was promoted. They were encouraged by the world's renovation and national self-determination before and after the March 1st Movement. But they were greatly disappointed to experience that the Korean issue was not even discussed at the Washington conference. Thus, some of them leaned toward national reformism to secure what they can politically and economically obtain within the ‘cultural politics’ of the Joseon Government-General. And the ultimatistic nationalists tried to unite with the socialists. The move led to the formation of 'shinganhoe'.

Q7. Is there any historical lesson the Washington Conference gives us today?

As I studied Korean independence movement history, two parts were of concern. If the country is powerless or lacks power, it will be alienated or sacrificed from international politics. This does not change even if the times and environment change. On the other hand, if the nation is divided by ideology, no matter how strong the national power is, it can not be gathered in one place. The weaker country could lose its country. If we are ideologically disproportionate, it is difficult for us to grasp the international situation properly. After the March 1st Movement, the provisional government of Shanghai and the Korean Commission to America and Europe were defeated by concentrating solely on the United States.

These days, the word "India and the Pacific" is on the media. Previously, it was called the Pacific Rim or Asia-Pacific, which is called another name at some point. Should we choose between China and the United States? When ideological issues are added, our choices are tilted to one side. It is time for coolness to be desirable. The Korean Peninsula is a bridge connecting the continent(Asia) and the ocean(Pacific). Therefore, we must communicate with continental forces and communicate with marine forces. It is time to present a vision and make efforts to persuade the people.