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A woodcut of Jewangungi (housed in
Samseong Museum of Publishing,
Treasure No. 1091-1)

Lee Seung-hyu (1224-1300) was born near the end of the military regime of Goryeo and served as a civil servant during the period of King Wonjong (1260-1274) when the monarchy had been restored and the period of King Chungryeol (1274-1308), who became the first royal son-in-law of the Yuan Dynasty. He passed the civil service examinations at the age of twenty-nine, but it wasn't until he was forty-one that he was appointed for a post. In the following decade or so of his career, this upright civil servant would be framed and demoted for fighting against corruption, and sacked for proposing a policy that displeased the king.

When be began his government career, Goryeo was in the late years of the military regime, with its administration corrupt, its land devastated by the Mongol invaders, and its people's livelihood in distress. During the period of King Wonjong, when the military regime had given up fighting against Mongolia in Ganghwado and returned to the capital Gaegyeong, the Three Special Units rose in revolt, and Goryeo, together with the Mongol army, was in battle to suppress them for as long as fourteen years. Although King Wonjong settled with Mongolia, Goryeo still had to pay a lot of tributes and women to Mongolia, and let Darughachi, appointed by Mongolia, be sent to major cities across the country for interference in domestic affairs and exploitation.

Goryeo Reduced to the Country of Yuan's Royal Son-in-Law

In the 15th year of King Wonjong's reign, the Yuan Dynasty ordered Goryeo to make 900 vessels, large and small, that it said it would use for the conquest of Japan. For the first expedition to Japan, 25,000 Mongol-Chinese troops came to Goryeo, and Goryeo was also expected to mobilize 15,000 troops of its own. The Yuan Dynasty established Jeongdonghaengseong in Goryeo, a government office to carry out its plan to place Goryeo under its direct control, and was biding its time. There were two expeditions to Japan, but they failed both times because of typhoons. Jeongdonghaengseong, having failed to serve its original purpose, remained as an organ to interference in the state affairs of Goryeo. At that time, not only was it difficult to predict the country's destiny, but it was also difficult for civil servants to do their job properly because of pro-Yuan forces abusing their authority.

During this period, Yuan's troops and envoys often traveled to and from Goryeo, and Goryeo also often sent their envoys to Yuan. Lee Seung-hyu, well known for his ability to write good poetry, became a document officer and visited Beijing, the capital of Yuan, twice by land. His trips to Beijing broadened his international horizons. Document officer was an important position responsible for writing compositions that the chief envoy would use for diplomatic response and serving as an advisor to literati.

The crown prince of King Wonjong, who would be King Chungryeol, stayed in Yuan for two years, and married the daughter of Kublai Khan in the 15th year of King Wonjong's reign. When King Wonjong died, Lee Seung-hyu insisted that the king's funeral should be conducted in Goryeo style, and brought the crown prince back to Goryeo once he ascended to the throne at the capital of Yuan. He was strongly determined to make King Chungryeol a monarch of revival, but the king, who didn't like civil servants, wouldn't listen to him.

Writing Jewangungi in Pursuit of the Future of the Goryeo Dynasty

Lee Seung-hyu renounced his post and retired to his home in Mt. Duta in Samcheok, Gangwon Province, where he decided that writing the histories of Korea and China was what he could do as a civil servant for his king and his country. So he composed the famous Jewangumki (帝王韻紀) and dedicated it to King Chungryeol. The characters 'Je (帝)' and 'Wang (王)' in the title refer to the ruler of the Middle Kingdom and the ruler of our country, respectively.

Jewangungi is poetry in two volumes, or song lyrics in today's terms. Volume 1 consists of 2,370 characters, describing the history of countries established in Mainland China, from the formation of the Earth to the generations of the emperors. Volume 2 consists of 2,170 characters, singing about the history of our country and the history of the Goryeo Dynasty. It was written as poetry with rhymes so that it would be easy for many people to sing.

To give the King mental support so that he, the King, could protect the dynasty, he sang about the geographical and historical characteristics of our country. As for the geographical characteristics, he began by declaring that the land east of the Liao-ho River was another world distinguished from the Middle Kingdom standing on its feet. And he noted that our country was surrounded on three sides by sea and bordered on one side with land. He observed that the sea was wild, understanding it as a natural fortress against foreign enemies rather than as a condition favorable for advancing overseas.

As for the historical characteristics, he noted that our country's many dynasties had been established by descendants of the heavenly-descended people, and had a long history. The progenitor of our country, he noted, was Dangun, a grandson of King Sakra, who established our country in the first year of the King Yao of China, and afterwards, there were as many as 164 descendents of Hwanin (King Sakra) who were benevolent and rich. He stressed that the founders of Buyeo, Koguryo, and Silla were all from the heavenly-descended people, descendents of Dangun. He was very proud of the long history of his country compared to that of Yuan.

Under the circumstances, however, where Goryeo's coexistence with Yuan was not an option at that time, it was inevitable for him to write the history of the Middle Kingdom. In short, in order to highlight his perception of history that the Goryeo Dynasty should be maintained while coexisting with Yuan, he wrote a song about its geographical and historical characteristics. To preach independence to him would be a misjudgment taking the situation at the time lightly.

The time when Dangun founded our country as indicated in Jewangungi is different from the one indicated in Samgukyusa (Heritage of the Three Kingdoms) by Ilyeon. Jewangungi's view would be adopted by history books compiled by the Joseon Dynasty, such as Dongguktonggam (Complete History of Korea) and Dongsagangmok (Annotated Account of Korean History). In the late 19th century, in the wave of modern nationalism, this material suggested that our people were the Baedal people i.e. Dangun's descendents. After Korea gained independence from Japan, it served as the basis on which the era of Dangun was established.