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What does Dongyi (東夷) mean to Koreans? After first appearing in bronze inscriptions from the Western Zhou period, mentions of Dongyi resurfaced in the Chinese classics Houhanshu (History of the Later Han Dynasty) and Sanguozhi (Records of the Three Kingdoms). Based on the time and range of activities, scholars consider mentions about Dongyi from the Western Zhou period as reference to the pre-Qin Dongyi while those in Chinese classics as reference to the Eastern Dongyi, which include the people of Buyeo, Koguryo, East Okjeo, Eumnu, Ye, Han, and Wa. Korean scholars have long been questioning what links the two Dongyi because of their direct relation to the ethnic identity of Koreans. However, not as many publications about Dongyi have been released by experts so far in Korea.

As such, the Northeast Asian History Foundation has published "Dongyi of Shandong, China" as part of its first step in conducting studies about Dongyi. To objectively study sources and employ scientific methods of analysis, Korean, Chinese, and Western archaeology and history experts specializing in Dongyi-related relics and texts in ancient inscriptions or oracle bone script have contributed to publishing a book that introduces various Dongyi material and diverse interpretations about such material to both general and academic readers.

Historical Sources Related to Dongyi

Remains and relics are traces left by people from the past. They may not have been left behind on purpose for posterity, but some still end up getting uncovered by archaeologists after having long been buried underground. Some relics have inscriptions on them, but most don't. Yet, because they are likely to have been actually used by the people who made them, they all serve as sources that demonstrate what life must have been like in the past. Hence, the many remains and relics discovered in Shandong, China that date back to between the eleventh and fifth century B. C. can serve as primary sources for Dongyi studies.

Inscriptions made on bronze goods or stone and oracle bone inscriptions on turtle shells and cow bones are significant as records of the time they were created. Inscriptions or oracle bone script directly left by the Dongyi have not yet been discovered, but those left by the Zhou dynasty have been, and mentions about the Dongyi in them communicate how the Dongyi appeared to other people. Nevertheless, such sources do possess limitations for not having been directly authored by the Dongyi.

Content pertaining to the Dongyi can also be found in Confucian texts such as Shangshu (尙書), Chunqiu (春秋), and Liji (禮記), in philosophical essays or annotated versions of them such as Huainanzi (淮南子) and Guanzi (管子), and in other historical records such as Shiji (史記), Hanshu (漢書), Hou hanshu (後漢書), Sanguozhi (三國志), and Zhushu jinian (竹書紀年). However, such content tends to be either brief or fragmentary. Moreover, because pre-Qin records have mostly been edited or dramatized by posterity, they can hardly be considered as reflective of the times, which makes it reconstruction necessary by thoroughly, critically reviewing them against other historical sources and studies.

Bearing such various issues in mind, the authors of Dongyi of Shandong, China introduce Dongyi-related sources and advise on how to understand the content they convey. A variety of other sources have been mentioned for comparison in order to help readers gain a proper grasp on who the Dongyi were.

Balanced View in Understanding the Dongyi

Dongyi refers to "different ethnicities in the east." The term is not likely to have been a label the Dongyi created for themselves. Ancient Chinese dynasties used to refer to themselves as the Huazu (華族) as opposed to the derogatory term Yi (夷) reserved for all other ethnicities, basically rendering them as barbarians out of a Sinocentric desire to denigrate all non-Huazu ethnicities.

The term that initially referred to people of different ethnicity in China's Hebei Province and Shandong came to later refer to a polity in northeastern China during the third century when Sanguozhi was being written. Since then, the Joseon biographies section of Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian) and the descriptions about ancient Korean kingdoms in Shiji have been categorized under biographies of the Dongyi. Dongyi as a reference to Koguryo, Baekje, Silla, and Wa disappeared much later when Songshi (History of the Song) came out in the 1300s.

Then what is the connection between the Dongyi from the pre-Qin period and the Dongyi in Chinese classics? Based on the books published in Korea, the two are considered to have come from the same descent, but arguments are divided on whether the Dongyi are in fact related to Koreans or not.

The following is how Korean scholars explain why the two Dongyi came to refer to people in different regions at different times. As the Huazu expanded the boundaries of its activities toward the east from Huabei Plain at midstream of the Yellow River, Shandong came under their influence and made it no longer necessary to use the term Dongyi. Then, as the Han reunified mainland China and reorganized the international order to revolve around themselves, the term Dongyi previously reserved for people of different ethnicity in Shandong came to also indicate such people in the three northeastern provinces of China, the Korean peninsula, and the Japanese archipelago. This explanation corresponds to the one given by Chinese scholars.

The authors of the featured book reject dichotomous logics and instead attempt to understand the interaction between the many tribes that were called Dongyi or the interaction between Dongyi and non-Dongyi tribes. That is because studying the Dongyi from diverse angles will help newly perceive Korean history and rethink East Asian history.

Dongyi is a topic significant to understanding ancient Korean history and a keyword to understanding Northeast Asian history. It can also be a starting point for examining the pattern that Koreans developed with its neighboring countries. Properly studying Dongyi could reveal how Koreans have perceived their neighbors throughout history and how the Korean culture has been formed over time.