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The manse movement that shouted for independence began to spread like wild fire on March 1, 1919. The movement in which all people took part, regardless of age, status, and gender, went beyond Korea and even spread abroad. This year’s new series, “Looking Back on the March 1st Movement,” introduces new stories and facts that have not been generally known in connection with the March 1st Movement and that shook the whole country 100 years ago.

Reorganization of International Order After World War I

The March 1st Movement in 1919 was the consequence of our own proactive response to changes in world order for the sake of independence. World War I was the incident that symbolically demonstrates changes in world order at that time. World War I, that broke out in 1914, ended with the conclusion of a peace treaty that was signed by the Allies, including Britain and Germany, in Palace of Versailles on June 29, 1919. The Allies claimed that the Versailles Treaty was intended to establish peace, but it was in fact supporting the restoration of international order as it was before World War I. French Prime Minister Clemenceau, who concurrently served as the Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary at the Paris Peace Conference, argued for the conference to open on January 18. After Germany’s victory in the Franco-Prussian War in 1871, the German Emperor’s coronation ceremony took place on January 18 at Versailles Palace, thus marking the beginning of the German Empire. To France, the restoration of world order meant that the world would return to the way it was during the era before the Franco-Prussian War. Yet the restoration aroused concern about revenge against Germany. In preparation for this, France occupied Rhineland and created a buffer zone. This post-war uneasiness was not a situation that France and Germany faced alone, but one which the entire world faced.

Collapse of Empires and National Liberation Movements

The greatest political change after World War I was the collapse of empires. The German empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Russian Empire all collapsed during or after the war. After their collapse, there were movements to found nation states in areas over which they used to rule. The situation was similar in the Allies, including Britain, as well as in the Central Powers. The Allies spent a great deal of money during World War I, which led to weakened control over colonies and the growth of independence movements in these regions. Ireland is a representative example of such changes. Ireland, which had been striving to separate from Britain and seeking independence, intensified its armed resistance after the Easter Rebellion of 1916 and declared independence on January 19, 1919. These circumstances were not confined to Europe.

Afghanistan, a protectorate under Britain at that time, attacked roads leading from India to Kabul, the Afghan capital, in order to escape Britain’s rule and occupied the area to launch its own independence movement. The situation was also the same in Egypt, where Britain protected the Suez Canal for stable control. The weakened influences of powerful nations as a result of World War I led to resistance all over the world, eventually leading to the foundation of some states.

In particular, nation states continued to be founded in empires that had disintegrated. Estonia, which had been under Russia’s rule, became independent on February 24, 1919 and Hungary separated from the Austrian Empire and gained independence. The Russian Revolution in 1917 influenced the world deeply. A revolution broke out in Bavaria, Germany, following the Spartacist Revolt. The spread of communist revolutions fueled fears in Europe.

The Russian Revolution during World War I led to the collapse of the Russian Empire and the Bolshevik government. Japan and other Allies sent troops to Russia in 1918 under the pretext of rescuing Czech soldiers and supported the anti-Bolsheviks, which escalated into a civil war in Russia. 

Japan and China concluded a military agreement during World War I, claiming that the Central Powers, including Germany, could invade. Based on the agreement, China declared its participation in the war and founded an army with military loans from Japan. As a result, the hegemonic conflict among warlords in China escalated into a civil war.

Changes in the International Situation and Independence Movements

The United States played a key role in ending World War I through its participation in early 1917, but its seizure of post-war leadership was beyond capacity. There was a sign of such leadership before the Paris Peace Conference of 1919. President Woodrow Wilson conceived a plan to reorganize European order through the collective security and self-determination of the people and to lead the establishment of world order. Thus, Wilson insisted on principles of peace called, “14 Points.” However European powers contended that order could be restored through damage restoration and the achievement of each state’s stability, claiming that Wilson’s “14 Points” would carry meaning only if they were implemented with wartime promises between Allies.

America’s internal political situation was an important factor and greatly influenced this situation. Wilson needed support from U.S. Congress in order to continue with his foreign policy. He wanted Senate to ratify the bill to join the League of Nations and the House of Representatives to approve the budget bill. The Republican Party opposed Wilson’s policy at the time. As the Republican Party won the majority in the Congressional elections on November 5, 1918, Wilson’s policy was put on hold. Such changes in the American political landscape meant that it would be difficult for Wilson’s foreign policy to win support from U.S. Congress. As the U.S. presidential elections of 1920 drew nearer, Wilson’s policy lost its foundation of support and traction in the U.S.

After all, Wilson’s idea was limited to the extent of not conflicting with the interests among powers, and Britain and France readjusted their shared border by dividing the Central Powers for the sake of their national security. Regional disputes intensified in areas where empires collapsed, making Europe’s political situation more precarious. Furthermore, the wave of communist revolution spread, fueling fears about communism in Europe. The U.S. also ratified exclusive bills, affected by European fears, and Japan used such international circumstances and fears as tools to strengthen its colonial rule. Such changes in world order provided a background for the ignition and spread of the March 1st Movement.