뉴스레터

Eight hundred years ago, Goryeo began its formal diplomacy with Mongolia. Mongolia, which was emerging as a powerhouse in Northeast Asia at the time, appeared in the history of Goryeo after the Battle of Gangdongseong Castle in 1218 (5th year of Gojong) and profoundly affected the history of Goryeo for about 140 years until Goryeo’s anti-Yuan fight succeeded in 1356 (5^th year of King Gongmin). Lee Ik-joo, professor of Korean history at the University of Seoul, was interviewed to take a look back on the Goryeo-Mongolian relationship and understand out what Goryeo’s diplomatic policy suggests to us.

Lee Ik-ju

professor of Korean history at University of Seoul

After graduating from the Department of Korean History at Seoul National University’s College of Liberal Arts, Professor Lee obtained a doctorate in literature at the same university. He is currently a professor of Korean history at the University of Seoul. As an academic activity, he chaired the Korean History Research Association, the largest organization of Korean history researchers.

Professor Lee appeared on KBS’s “The Day, History Journal” and JTBC’s “Different Class” and is in the vanguard of popularizing history through various lessons. The professor wrote “War and International Order in Northeast Asia” (joint work), “Study on the Change in World Order in East Asia and Relationships among Korea, Japan and China in the Late 14^th Century” (joint work), “Shedding New Light on Politician Jeong Do-jeon” (joint work), and “The Life and Thoughts of Lee Saek,” and also wrote several papers on the political history of late Goryeo and historical relations between Goryeo and Mongolia (Yuan).

Q

It is very important to understand the history of our neighboring countries in order to understand Korean history. Mongolia, in particular, cannot be counted out when considering Goryeo’s history. As the Mongol Empire ordinarily reminds us of hostility, how do you assess the empire from the objective perspective of world history?

A

Having occupied the largest territory in world history, the Mongol Empire existed for 200 years or so starting in the 13^th century. Thus, the empire embodies strong images of war and pillage that occurred throughout the course of subjugation. However, there is something more important than this. The empire played an immensely important role in the history of exchanges between the East and the West while a large empire was in the making, spreading throughout the Eurasian Continent. Also, because of the need to govern the vast territory, communication and traffic networks developed, resulting in the creation of spaces where diverse cultures from all over the world interacted at a fast rate. The Mongol Empire did not impose its culture on these lands. Rather, while embracing the cultures of the regions over which it ruled, the kingdom merged and developed the various cultures. For example, the blue and white porcelain was made by combining kaolin from southern China and cobalt pigment from the Middle East. In order for China’s earth and the Middle East’s dye to meet, there had to be a country that could encompass the two regions, and the Mongol Empire played such a role. The empire was similar to a sponge, embracing things as they were and combining them without being stubborn.

Q

You took part in writing the “Goryeo” section of “Korea’s External Relations and Diplomatic History,” recently published by the Northeast Asian History Foundation. How do you assess the formal diplomatic relationship between Goryeo and Mongolia that began 800 years ago?

A

It was the “pact of brotherhood” of 1219 that prompted Goryeo and Mongolia to enter into a relationship for the first time. Before that, these two countries were never aware of each other. They began to cooperate in order to thwart the Khitans, and the Mongol Empire demanded a brotherhood relationship first. Yet the two countries interpreted this brotherhood relationship from their own experiences, respectively. There were things upon which they agreed and disagreed. What they agreed on was that the two countries were not on the same par, thus requiring Goryeo to send offerings and pay taxes to the Mongol Empire. However, the two countries concurred only up until this point. The Mongol Empire demanded additionally, according to its principles, that Goryeo must send endless offerings to the empire and that Goryeo kings must be present at the Mongol Empire’s royal court, in person. Although they had established the same brotherhood relationship, the Mongol Empire believed that Goryeo had agreed to send offerings taxes while Goryeo thought that it had agreed to “peace” with the Mongol Empire. Goryeo rejected sending its king to be present at the Mongol Empire’s royal court with the belief that the two countries had concluded on a peaceful relationship, whereas the Mongol Empire demanded the king’s presence with the belief that Goryeo would send offerings and taxes. Then, the Mongol Empire took a step backward as Goryeo stubbornly rejected their requests. In the end, the two countries’ conflict over offerings eventually led to war. However, given that the Mongol Empire had accepted some parts of Goryeo’s contentions, Goryeo’s relationship with the Mongol Empire appears to have been the most equal among all the discriminative relationships the Mongol Empire had in those days.

Q

It seems as though royal weddings also contributed greatly towards Goryeo-Mongolian relations. Originally, there had not been cases in which Mongolian princesses got married to those outside of the Mongol Empire, but a new example was set during the reign of King Chungnyeol. How do you view the royal weddings between Goryeo and the Mongol Empire?

A

Princess Jegukdaejang was Kublai Khan’s biological daughter. The fact that she was married off as a biological daughter, and not to a distant relative, might have meant that the Mongol Empire thought highly of Goryeo. Goryeo’s kings continue to wed Mongolian princesses and became the sons-in-law of the Mongolian imperial house. Thus, one needs to figure out why Kublai had royal marriage relations with Goryeo. Goryeo proposed marriage to the Mongol Empire when Sambyeolcho was about to resist the Mongol Empire but Goryeo could not afford to relax their defense against Japan, an unknown enemy. Kublai thought that the Mongol Empire could cope with Japan and Sambyeolcho’s threats just by maintaining stable relations with Goryeo’s royal house and ensuring its supremacy over Goryeo. The fact that Goryeo’s king became a son-in-law of the Mongolian imperial house carries great implications for Goryeo-Mongolian relations. From the Mongol Empire’s point of view, “If he is the king of the region we occupy or if he is a son-in-law of our imperial house” are two entirely different matters. Goryeo’s king and the Mongol Empire’s envoy used to sit equally, face-to-face, before the marriage. However, once the king became a son-in-law of the Mongol Empire’s imperial house, he took a higher seat and attained a stronger voice. As of late, some researchers have raised questions about this matter. This type of relationship became a controversy of identity, over whether he was Goryeo’s king or a son-in-law of Yuan’s imperial house. If a son-in-law had doubled as a king, Goreyo would have been one of the dominions that the Mongol Empire handed out to certain sons-in-law. However, I think that Goryeo’s kings became sons-in-law. The Mongol Empire had several sons-in-law but none had a state with independent history as a dominion like Goryeo kings did. In his credential sent to Goryeo in 1310, Mongolia’s Qayshan Khan stated: “As I see it, now, under heaven, only the Samhan (Goryeo) will play the role of king with the people and the royal court.” Additionally, the Mongol Empire called Goryeo’s king the “monarch of a foreign country,” and in a nutshell, Goryeo was a foreign country.

Q

When it comes to discussing international relations in East Asia, “investment” and “tribute” cannot be ignored. It is no exaggeration to say that investment and tribute were the stepping stones that maintained and secured the diplomacy of subservience. Please tell us how the investment-tribute system between the Mongol Empire and Goryeo operated.

A

Investment and tribute were traditional ways by which Chinese dynasties built relationships with neighboring countries. Weak states near the stronger ones could have their statehood recognized by receiving investments and offering tributes, so investment and tributes have become methods to keep peace in Northeast Asia. From the very beginning of its foundation, Goryeo had maintained investment-tribute relationships with Chinese dynasties. When the Mongol Empire showed up, Goryeo also tried to establish an investment-tribute relationship and preserve the peace. Right after peace was settled, Kublai created the era name Zhongtong and allowed Goryeo to use it, which had also occurred under former relationships of investments and tributes. Therefore, Goryeo naturally took it as an investment-tribute relationship. Yet Mongol demanded six more duties in accordance with its tradition. This caused Goryeo to wage diplomatic war during the 14-year reign of Wonjong. Out of the six duties, Goryeo held out on two, saying it “would not report the results of the census” and “would not establish Darughachi.” This was because the two duties countered their investment-tribute relationship. As a result, King Chungnyeol negotiated with Kublai, resulting in their withdrawal of the two duties. Goryeo, for its part, thought that “Goryeo and the Mongol Empire were in an investment-tribute relationship because two core duties out of the six total duties were taken out. I believe that the investment-tribute relationship is at the mercy of compromise and agreement between nations and has no fixed archetype.

Q

Goryeo had to endure endless attacks from northern nations, including the Khitan, Jurchen, and the Mongol Empire. Nevertheless, the country defended itself. Where do you think Goryeo’s power came from to have overcome such attacks?

A

It’s generally believed that Goryeo defended the country with military power, but I think differently. As the political situation in the continent from the 10th century through the 13th was volatile, there were frequent wars. In contrast, Goryeo suffered from relatively fewer wars. This may have been Goryeo’s diplomatic achievement. Goryeo mobilized troops first to defend the country in case other countries invaded. But the defense was aimed not at demolishing the enemy, but at blocking the aggressors first and maintaining peaceful relations through continuous diplomatic efforts. Khitan’s invasion is a case in point. The Khitans attacked Goryeo three times but Goryeo succeeded in thwarting them ultimately, although Gaegyeong fell to the enemy and the king fled to Naju. After the Battle of Gwiju, however, Goryeo sent envoys to the Khitan first and called for the restoration of their investment-tribute relationship. Both war and negotiation were in progress simultaneously. After the negotiation, there was no large war for 100 years in the 12^th century. Even when Jurchen founded the Jin and demanded Goryeo’s subservience in the beginning of the 12^th century, Goryeo was willing to accept its submission to the Jin to avoid war. There are some voices highly assessing Myocheong’s capital relocation movement and censuring Kim Bu-sik who suppressed Myocheong, but there would not have been a 100-year long peace in the 12^th century without Goryeo’s subservience to the Jin at that time. Goryeo saw “subservience” as part of its diplomatic policy. “Subservience” was a diplomatic policy by which a weak nation maintained peace in the face of the stronger nation, and the investment-tribute relationship was a means for achieving such subservience.

Q

Goryeo had the sons-in-law of Mongolian emperors and was the Mongol Empire’s closest country. Yet Goryeo’s 31^st King Gongmin staged an anti-Yuan policy. Please us a bit about the background of King Gongmin’s anti-Yuan policy and its results.

A

Goryeo was a country that was intimate with the Mongol Empire. But as relations with the Mongol Empire continued for 100 years or so, pro-Mongolian forces were reinforced within Goryeo’s land and the whole family of Empress Gi, in particular, did not acknowledge the king. Under the Mongol Empire’s continuous interference, Goryeo’s order of state became messy and people’s livelihoods were at stake. It was King Gongmin who took these circumstances the most seriously. What King Gongmin did first was to transform Goryeo into a new country through reform. However, he encountered opposition from pro-Mongolian forces led by Empress Gi. King Gongmin happened to learn that the Mongol Empire was faltering while living in the Mongol Empire for 10 years before being enthroned. Thus, he altered his goal to drive all pro-Mongolian forces out of Goryeo. He successfully carried out anti-Yuan policy in 1356. His anti-Yuan policy did not result in just expelling the Mongol Empire from Goryeo. What was important was that rebellion broke out in Goryeo, the country that was closest to the Mongol Empire’s imperial house, and the Mongol Empire failed to stifle the revolt. This revealed the weakness of the Mongol Empire. Therefore, the anti-Mongolian movement erupted more rigorously, consequently resulting in the collapse of the Mongol Empire. In that sense, King Gongmin’s anti-Yuan policy is significant from the perspective of world history.

Q

What troubled you most when you studied the history of relations between Goryeo and the Mongol Empire? I heard that it would not be easy to restore the history of Goryeo-Mongolian relations because of the shortage of data and materials in Mongolia.

A

In fact, all research into the history of the Goryeo-Mongolian relationship is difficult. As you said, what troubles us in the restoration of the history of the Goryeo-Mongolian relationship is that Mongolians have very few materials about their own history. As far as the history of the relationship is concerned, it is essential to scrutinize the positions of two countries, but it is difficult to look at Mongolia’s position. Also, Mongolia’s history relating to Goryeo can be seen almost uniquely through “Wonsa (first records)” written in Chinese characters, but there were distortions in the course of being written using Chinese characters. The position and ethics of Han, who wrote these records, were reflected in the work. For this reason, there are no historical records showing Mongolia’s position as it was. The research is more difficult because of the need to speculate Mongolia’s position.

Q

Having established the Institute on Eurasian History last year, the Foundation is endeavoring to study and restore Mongolia’s history, as well as the history from other northern areas, from our point of view rather than from a view of the world based on Sinocentrism. Do you think research into the history of the Goryeo-Mongolian relationship or research into the history of Mongolia would contribute more to the restoration of our history? Feel free to make proposals concerning the Institute on Eurasian History.

A

It is true that when we studied the history of international relations in the past, there was a tendency to put Chinese dynasties at the center. It is natural that we make efforts to escape from a view of the world based on Sinocentrism. So we have high hopes for the Institute on Eurasian History. With respect to Mongolia, it is also essential to get out of the China-centered based historical interpretation. However, there are concerns because of the tendency to underscore Mongolia’s position in the recent research into the history of the Goryeo-Mongolian relationship. Relations are reciprocal and admittedly, research into the history of relationships, requires an understanding of the other party. Nonetheless, Goryeo must be placed at the center. If research into Eurasian history is intended to create a viewpoint on Eurasian history, while giving up a viewpoint on Korean history, it might be like choosing “the color rainbow” rather than selecting a “specific color,” in a place where all colors gather to make a rainbow. My hope is that I will be able to conduct research that reveals my color clearly.