뉴스레터

This year marks the centenary of the Washington Conference, which lasted from mid-November 1921 until early February of the following year. The Washington Conference was held in Washington for about four months, with European and American powers and Japan to discuss arms reduction and issues in the Asia-Pacific region. It is also called the Washington Disarmament Conference, The Washington Naval Conference, or the Pacific Conference, the Pacific Disarmament Conference. This had a great impact on the international situation at the time. So, the term 'Washington Treaty System' was used for a while, and it is known that it had a great influence on the independence movement of the Korean people. Therefore, I would like to briefly review the background and main contents of this conference, especially the facts and significance related to the independence movement of Korea, and the implications of today.

Korean delegation sent to Washington conference

From left, Rhee Seung-man, Seo Jae-pil, Avon, Jung Han-kyung, Fred Dolph

(Collection : Yonsei University Library (Researcher Syngman Rhee at Yonsei University)

After the end of World War I(1914. 7–1918. 11), the "Peace System of Versailles" was established in Europe. However, no international order was established in the Asia-Pacific region until the early 1920s. W.G.Harding(1865–1923), who took office as President of the United States in March 1921, envisioned a conference to reduce the naval armament of the powers and to negotiate issues on Far East Asia and the Pacific. In July of that year, Harding proposed a conference to eight countries including Britain, France, Italy, Japan, China, Belgium, the Netherlands and Portugal. The reasons for this proposal were the confrontation between Britain and France on security issues after the Versailles Peace System established at the end of World War I, the confrontation between the United States and Japan over the issue of entry into China and the Pacific Ocean, and the excessive pressure on military costs due to the competition of naval construction between the United States, Japan and the United Kingdom.

The following is what the conference discussed. ① Naval Armament Limited: The tonnage ratio of flagship ships of 10,000 tonnes or higher will be set at US 5, UK 5, Japan 3, France 1.75 and Italy 1.75 ② Prohibition of use of submarines and poison gases ③ Nine Nations Treaty on China ④ Treaty of the United States, Britain, France, and Japan on territory and possession of the island in the Pacific ⑤ Returning Germany's rights to the Shandong Peninsula to China, Japanese troops in Siberia will withdraw. 

After successfully completing this conference, the United States led the Asia-Pacific region. As a result, the so-called 'Washington Treaty System' formed an international political order in Northeast Asia and the Pacific region. This was to establish a mutual cooperation system while guaranteeing the rights of the Western powers including the United States and Japan in the Asia-Pacific region. It was not related to Joseon, which was a Japanese colony. In particular, Harding had plans to negotiate with Japan to resolve the confrontation between the US and Japan. Therefore, Korea's strategy of expecting the United States and Japan to go to war was difficult to achieve. Nevertheless, the Korean independence movement camp, including the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea, who heard that the Washington Conference was held, made efforts to identify the importance of the conference and dispatch representatives to raise the issue of Korea's independence.

Public bonds issued in the Americas (1919. 7)

In order to raise funds for the independence movement, 

the bonds were issued under the common name of Rhee Seung-man and Kim Kyu-sik.

(Collection : Independence Hall of Korea)

The key men of the provisional government had different opinions by ideological tendency or sect. But in the end, they decided to dispatch a Korean delegation, headed by Rhee Seung-man, the president of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea. The diplomatic methodology of petitioning for issues related to Korea's independence had ended in failure at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. However, many of the professional government figures recognized the Washington Conference as an important opportunity for a diplomatic independence movement based on National Self-determination. Although the Korean side was not invited to the conference, Rhee formed a delegation with Seo Jae-pil, Jung Han-kyung and Fred A. Dolph. They have made various efforts to ensure that the issue of Korea is selected as the agenda of the conference.

The Provisional Government organized and sponsored the diplomatic support group of the Pacific Conference centered on Hongjin, and the diplomatic research society centered on Ahn Chang-ho. As a private organization, the Korea-China Cooperation Association(韓中互助社) and the Korea-China Association(韓中協會) also joined. Seo Jae-pil, chairman of The Korean Commission to America and Europe for the Republic of Korea, appealed to the American people and raised a large amount of money worth $ 45,000. The Korean Commission to America and Europe for the Republic of Korea has prepared funds for independent diplomacy through various channels, such as issuing bonds under the common name of Rhee Seung-man and Kim Kyu-sik and selling them to Koreans and foreigners.

On the other hand, in Korea, 『Dong-A Ilbo』 showed great interest. Kim Dong-sung, a reporter from a US student, visited the conference and posted articles several times. The editorial also dealt with the proposal of the issue about Korea. Even on December 17, 1921, when the conference was held, Jang Duk-soo and others held a lecture in Seoul for ordinary citizens, where a total of 10,000 people gathered. Some young people and students tried to push for the independence movement again with the opportunity of this conference. In addition, 367 representatives from 13 regions, including Lee Sang-jae, sent a document entitled 「Document to petition for the independence of the Korean people(韓國人民致太平洋會議書)」 to the delegation to support their activities. As expectations for the Washington Conference grew and the date of the event neared, the Joseon Government-General warned the chondogyo and tried to block the independence movement in advance.

In order to support this conference, the provisional government dispatched liaison officers and correspondents to the Americas, as well as Manchuria, Maritime Province, and Korea to carry out a wide range of fundraising campaigns. In this regard, Hong Jae-bum from Gyeongbuk was arrested for his involvement in a petition for independence of Korea and the issuance of public bonds by the provisional government.

By the time the United States proposed holding the Washington Conference in July 1921, the State Department’s internal report for the purpose of providing the representatives to attend the meeting was the 22nd of the 31 topics, with Korea being set as an independent theme. This suggests that the U.S. State Department knew that Koreans demanded independence after the March 1st Movement, and that the Washington Conference did not rule out the possibility of discussing the Korean issue.

However, in fact, the Korean issue was not proposed or discussed, but completely excluded. Even the Korean delegation could not enter the conference venue. At that time, the US government was in a position to say that the Korean issue was only a matter of Japanese domestic affairs. Moreover, the U.S.government did not recognize the Korean delegation. In the end, the 'Diplomatic Independence' strategy based on 'National Self-determination' failed like the Paris Peace Conference. In this regard, most people negatively evaluated the diplomacy that petitioned for Korea's independence at the Washington Conference and the activities of the Korean delegation led by Rhee. Recently, however, it has also paid attention to Rhee's public diplomacy, and their achievements that have led some American media and people to form friendly public opinion about Korea.

Rhee has achieved results in persuading journalists such as H.G. Wells of the United Kingdom outside the conference hall to report on the issue of Korean independence. U.S. Senator Selden Palmer Spencer collected the Korean appeal for independence recorded in the US Assembly record and promotional materials submitted by the Korean delegation to produce a booklet called "Korea's Appeal to the Conference on Limitation of Armament" and appealed that the Korean issue should be discussed at the conference. In addition, Fred A. Dolph, a legal adviser to the Korean delegation, sent "Brief For Korea" to US Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes in April 1921 and criticized the illegal colonial rule, glorification of rule, and harsh decapitation of Japanese imperialism.

South Korea's appeal to Washington disarmament conference

(Collection : Harvard Law Library)

The failure of the Washington Conference greatly weakened Rhee's position as the most aggressive advocate and practice of diplomatic independence. In addition, criticism of the provisional government has been hard at home and abroad when the independence issue of Korea has not been successful. As a result, the provisional government cabinet expressed its gratitude. Thus, by 1922-23, it was argued that the National Representative Conference should be convened around Beijing in connection with the actions of the provisional government. And the fierce debate and confrontation between the 'Changjopa' and 'Gaejopa' about the provisional government continued, and the National Representative Conference was held.

In Korea, the prospects for independence weakened, so-called cultural movements and self-governing movements emerged, and socialist movements began to rise. The northeastern Chinese(Manchuria) and Primorskii, the centers of the anti-Japanese armed struggle, denied the authority of the provisional government and came to regard themselves as the central areas of the independence movement. In fact, one person who was active in northeast China criticized as follows. “If we really want independence, we must fight fiercely and back up with a determination to die, so that we can expect the effect of diplomacy. Is it better to prepare for our backs than to someone who says he has excellent diplomacy and eliminates huge finances?”

The national movement forces at home and abroad regarded the end of the Washington Conference, that the independence issue of Korea was ignored, as the downfall of pro-American diplomacy claimed by Rhee. As a result, the provisional government council impeached and dismissed President Rhee in March 1925 and abolished the Korean Commission to America and Europe. However, ‘The Korean Commission to America and Europe’ managed to maintain its status by Rhee and others, and in June 1941 it was revived as ‘Korean Commission in the USA’. After all, the Korean independence movement entered a period of decline shortly after the Washington Conference, and the flow and leadership of the national movement changed.

On April 16, 1919, when news of the March 1 Movement was reported to Philadelphia, USA, 

Koreans held a 'Freedom Convention' and marched in demonstrations.

(Collection : Independence Hall of Korea)

On January 24, 1922, the First Congress of the Toilers of Far East was held in Moscow, the Russian capital. At this congress, a report called "Joseon(Korea)'s Revolutionary Movement" was conducted. The reporter was Kim Gyu-sik(1881–1950) who attended the Paris Peace Conference as the representative of Korea during the March 1st Movement in 1919. He was the head of ‘the Korean delegation of The First Congress of the Toilers of Far East’.

The Congress, organized by the Comintern Executive Committee, was attended by 52 Korean representatives. A total of 144 people attended, including 42 Chinese representatives, 16 Japanese representatives, and Mongolian and Indian representatives, with the Korean delegation accounting for 36% of the total delegates. This shows how much the Korean independence activists' expectations for this Congress were, while also showing their antipathy and disappointment with the Washington Conference.

The Communist Party of China, which was launched in 1921, indirectly supported the independence movement of the Korean people through various declarations and documents. However, they took a critical stance on the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea in the 1920s. In particular, they criticized the provisional government of the Republic of Korea in Shanghai for considering diplomacy as the core of the independence movement, and for pursuing independence in a way that puts pressure on Japan by relying on the United States and Europe.

In the process of independence movement in Korea, we could expect the help and support of the US and European powers, Chinese government, warlords, and Chinese strongmen. However, we can find important implications and meanings in that we have not achieved much except Kuomintang of China. Today, Korea needs a wise diplomacy and survival strategy between the United States of the World Superpower and China, which has re-emerged as a great power. But the important thing is the independent competence and will based on confidence and strong cohesion, wise judgment and continuous practice, and domestic and overseas cooperation and network supporting it. In this regard, the efforts of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea and Rhee Seung-man, which were shown at the Washington meeting 100 years ago, still provide implications.