뉴스레터

How much do we know about the ancient kingdom of Balhae, which existed for 200 years as south and north states from the late 7th century to the early 10th century along with Silla? Let's begin a historical journey, centered on the primary historical records related to Balhae and newly discovered data. It will be interesting to uncover the hidden stories in Balhae history along with the diversity of interpretation and importance of data.

After the fall of Balhae, Balhae history had remained hidden for a long time. Khitan, which ruined Balhae, did not compile Balhae history, and the Balhae people who had lost their kingdom did not have enough strength to spare. Yet where Balhae once existed was the root of ethnic groups in Northeast Asia, so Balhae history has been handed down from memory to memory. Today, interpretations of Balhae history vary broadly from country to country. How should we study Balhae history?

Contentions of those who took notice of Balhae history

As the household of Buyeo failed and the Go family collapsed, the Kim family owned the south and the Dae family owned the north, and they called it Balhae. They should have been called south and north states, and there should have been the “history of the south and north states”, and it was improper for Goryeo not to compile it. Generally speaking, the Dae lineage was none other than the Goguryeo people, and the land that they had occupied belonged to Goguryeo. They pioneered the land to east, west, and north, and merely enlarged it. After the Kim family failed and the Dae family collapsed, the Wang family integrated and owned it and called it Goryeo. The southern region, the land of the Kim lineage, was complete, whereas the northern region, the land of the Dae family, was incomplete. Some of the land went to Jurchen or Khitan.

– Ryu Deuk-gong, “Balhaego”, 1784

Of the primitive tribes of the northeastern region, the Buyeo tribe that had migrated to the Korean Peninsula fell to Tang. Goguryeo and Baekje are examples. Sushen and Donghu continued to live in their old land, and confronted each other from east and west. At first, Sumo Mohe of Sushen emerged in the Tang period, followed by Khitan of Donghu in the Wu and Northern Song Dynasties. Jurchen of Sushen emerged yet again in the Song Dynasty, followed by Mongolia of Donghe in the late Song period, which destroyed Song and Jin, resulting in four kingdoms—Balhae, Liao, Jin, and Yuan.

– Jin Yufu, “Dongbei Tongshi (Northeast History)” 1st volume, 1941; interpretation by the Northeast Asian History Foundation, “Jin Yufu's Dongbuktongsa” 1st volume, 2007

Ancient Balhae kingdom and current east-asia

Ryu Deuk-gong, claiming the loss of the north of Tumen and west of the Yalu River

There are no history books compiled by the Balhae people, and Khitan that ruined Balhae did not compile Balhae history, either. After Balhae collapsed, it was Ryu Deuk-gong (1748-1807) in the 18th century of the Joseon Dynasty who had the most ardent interest in Balhae history. He published “Balhaego”, the first specialized history book on Balhae, in 1784. Ryu saw history as an important factor in determining the rise and fall of a state. His statement that Goryeo's slump was caused by failure to compile Balhae history was in this context. Ryu Deuk-gong's arguments are important scholastic logic about Balhae history by the academic circles of today's South and North Korea. Ryu's emphasis on occupying the north of Tumen and west of the Yalu River, Goguryeo's old territory, is the most offensive contention to China. He is the researcher of Balhae history most censured by Chinese scholars.

If interpreted according to national and inherited consciousness

Korea claims that Balhae was founded in Goguryeo's old land by its people, and that there was an inherited consciousness about Balhae because Balhae people fled to Goryeo after its collapse. This is based on national and inherited consciousness. The Balhae people that our academic circles understand are the “Goguryeo people and Mohe tribe”, a group sharing blood, culture, language, cohabitation, and memories. In particular, the Mohe people were adjacent to Goguryeo, and some of them were Goguryeo people. Differences between Goguryeo people and the Mohe tribe disappeared in the Balhae period, and there were solely Balhae people after the collapse of Balhae. According to Korea's racial concept, there are no ethnic groups linked to China among Balhae people today, and there are only a few Han people.

Jin Yufu, claiming that Balhae was a Tang vassal state founded by Sumo Mohe

The Chinese version of Ryu Deuk-gong is Jin Yufu (1887-1962). Having graduated from Peking University before serving as professor of Dongbei University, he argued that Manchuria was a part of China from old times through “Balhaegukjijangpyeong” (1934) and “Donbei Tongsha” to prove the injustice of Manchukuo founded by the Japanese empire. There had been such primitive tribes as Buyeo, Sushen, and Donghe, and particularly the Buyeo tribe (Goguryeo and Baekje) that had migrated to the Korean Peninsula was ruined by Tang. The Sushen tribe founded Balhae and Jin, and Donghe initiated Liao and Yuan. Jin Yufu defined Balhae as a Tang vassal state founded by Sumo Mohe. Today, the perception about Balhae history by Chinese scholars follows Jin Yufu's arguments entirely.

If interpreted according to peoples and territory

China explains historical jurisdictions in accordance with peoples (Zhonghua minzu) and territory. China's domain is the territory of the Qing Dynasty, having the largest land in China's history, and Zhonghua minzu includes the large number of people that have lived there. The argument is that Balhae was within this sphere, and thus it is Chinese history and the people there were Zhonghua minzu. If we establish Korean history according to China's logic, the largest territory in Korean history existed in the south-north states period of Silla and Balhae; this space is the domain of Korean history. All ethnic groups in the past that have existed here are Korean people, and their states and regimes belong to Korean history. Korean people have been formed by the alliance and amalgamation of such central groups as the Ye, Maek, Han, and Sushen tribes (Sushen, Yilou, Wuji, Mohe, Jurchen, Manchu), some Donghe tribes (Xiongnu, Wuhuan, Xianbi, Khitan, Mongolia), and only a few Han and Japanese, and have developed thus so far. The previous dynasties in Korean history are Gojoseon, Buyeo, Goguryeo, Baekje, Silla, Balhae, Goryeo, Joseon, and Liao, Jin, and Later Jin.

Interpretation of Balhae history must follow common and rational “standards”

History studies and discussions must follow rational standards. However, Balhae history has not been treated so. Standards for Korea's and China's interpretations of Balhae history are different. If we follow Korea's national and inheritance logic, the Chinese side should explain Balhae history centered on Han; in this case, the odds are low that Balhae history is Chinese history. According to China's nation (Zhonghua minzu) and territorial sphere, the scope of Korean history and inclusive ethnic groups become far larger than the present. As a result, the scope of China's history becomes smaller, and the historical scope and objects of both countries overlap considerably. It is therefore necessary to conduct research into Balhae history by finding common and rational standards.

What kind of country is Balhae?

Disputes over Balhae history between Korea and China seem to cross the point of no return. The history of both countries can change depending on whether Balhae history is Chinese or Korean. However, if we review various historical data and the circumstances of the time fairly in accordance with academic standards, it is true that Balhae history is closer to Korean than to Chinese. There are many Balhae historic sites and artifacts in China, who is reluctant to disclose them to Korean researchers and refuses to discuss Balhae history. But I hope that in this new year there will be a forum for researchers on Balhae to meet on the soil of Balhae and share their innermost feelings frankly. They need to delve into what country Balhae is and what Balhae history means in East Asia.