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Stone Lion Statues of Balhae(copy) ⓒOpen Archives of The War Memorial of Korea

The beginning of the debate regarding which country the history of Balhae belongs to

Due to the 'Northeast Borderland History and the Chain of Events Research Project', China's claim on Balhae was known in Korea. They say that Balhae is the local government of Tang, founded by Mohe, an ancient minority in China. So not only scholars from both countries but also the general public argued fiercely. With the question "Is the history of Balhae a history of Korea or a history of China?" In fact, it has been quite a long time since this view was formed in Chinese people. At the end of the 19th century, the invasion of Japan and imperial powers began. Then China began research on the history of Northeast China(Manchuria) and Balhae. At this time, the northeastern region and the people who lived there were part of China under the rule of the emperor. And there was a perception that the history of Balhae is the Chinese borderland history. Since establishing the New China, China has jointly excavated the Balhae remains with North Korea in the 1960s. However, while the study on the history of Balhae in China was suspended due to the Cultural Revolution, North Korea unilaterally announced results of the research. In addition, North Korea emphasized the history of Balhae as the history of Korea in the books 「For the Study of Balhae History」(『History·Science』 1962-1), 「Culture of Balhae」(1971), and 「History of Balhae」(1979), and emphasized that Balhae is the country that succeeded Goguryeo. This fact was known and provoked China. China has made full-scale research on borderland in the northeast region with the history of Balhae since the Cultural Revolution. In 1983, the Research Center for Chinese Borderland History and Geography was established under the control of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences(CASS), and the 'History of Balhae' was included in the main research subjects.

In the 1990s, diplomatic relations between Korea and China were made, and research on the history of Balhae in Korea was known to Chinese academia. This was a stimulant for the study of the history of Balhae in China. And the controversy about the history of Balhae is in a new phase as China claims that the history of Goguryeo is the history of China through Northeast Borderland History and the Chain of Events Research Project(2002-2007). So far, the history of Balhae has been regarded as the history of Korea, and there was a premise that it inherited the history, territory, culture, and members of Goguryeo. By the way, the basic premise was denied due to the Northeast Borderland History and the Chain of Events Research Project. In this situation, I wonder what people thought at the time. Two titles, Haidong Shengguo and Beidi, which pointed to Balhae. The image in it could be one answer to our questions.

North Korea emphasized that Balhae was founded as a result of the 

"anti-invasion struggle of Goguryeo peoples to regain the independence of the nation that was violated by the invaders of Tang".

History of Balhae(Publisher of the Science Encyclopedia, 1979: Domestic, Hanmadang, 1989)

Image of Balhae in ‘Haidong Shengguo’

When called 'Haidong Shengguo', it generally recalls the development of Balhae. The word I pay attention to is 'Haidong'. The Tang people living west of the sea called Balhae 'Haidong Shengguo'. They called the products of Balhae 'Haidong products'. The title 'Haidong' was used by ancient Chinese people to call people or areas across the east sea. It was used as a modifier in front of the national name such as Haedong Samhan, Haedong Samguk, Haedong Koryo and Haedong Joseon. Or the title 'Haidong' alone meant Goguryeo, Silla, Bekje, etc. It is meaningful that the word 'Haidong', which refers to ancient Three Kingdoms, Goryeo, and Joseon, was used in the Balhae period.

The sea was the main transportation route used for the trip between China and Goguryeo and Balhae, and it was the boundary and border between the two regions. The epitaph of Zhang Jianzhang, which wrote 『The Record of Balhae』, is engraved with his journey to Balhae. “We sailed the east sea by boat in the fall of Kuichou Year(833), and we reached Holhan Province(忽汗州) in the late fall of the following year.” It would have been very difficult to navigate a sea route that takes a year on one-way. And for them, the sea would have felt like a huge barrier to the east. The sea gave the ancient Chinese a strong impression. Therefore, it is natural for them to recognize the two spaces separated by the sea as separate spaces.

Many examples show that ancient Chinese people recognized Manchuria and the Korean peninsula as spaces outside China, which are the world across the sea. The epitaph of Qi rijin(祈日進墓誌銘, 780) states that diplomacy with Balhae is expressed as 'something outside of China'. The epitaph of Zhang Shou(張壽墓誌銘, 614), which was made earlier, describes the Sui army's presence in Goguryeo as staying abroad. ‘Zhongwai(中外)’ means outside of China, but especially ‘Haiwai(海外)’ means a foreign country. And among the 'Haiwai', Manchuria and the Korean peninsula were called 'Haidong'. The Tang people also added the word 'Haidong' to 'Balhae', which is a place that is different from the space where they are.

What is interesting is that Zhang Jianzhang wrote in 『The Record of Balhae』, "I have recorded the customs, government offices, palaces, and official ranks of the island barbarians." In this regard, the epitaph of Wei Jun(韋俊墓誌銘, 733) states, "There are island barbarians on the rough land in the distance. They specifically cross the great sea and aimed for Fortress.” This is a description of attack of Balhae. They applied the expression 'island barbarians' to Goguryeo. So they combined the image of the sea every time they recalled Goguryeo and Balhae. This shows that ancient Chinese regarded them as forces across the east sea.

The Epitaph of Wei Jun

Source : Mao yangguang, Editor-in-chief Yu Fuwei, 『洛陽流散唐代墓誌彙編』, National Library Press, 2013

Image of Balhae in ‘Beidi’

Countries that grew into 'imperials' in history centered on their civilizations and recognized the surrounding areas and people as uncivilized lands and barbarians. The English word barbarian, which means a savage person, is derived from ancient Greek, meaning that it is a person who speaks 'bar-bar-' and 'talks like dogs'. Ancient Chinese called themselves the Zhonghua(中華: the central country, the civilized country) or the Huaxia(華夏: the beautiful and grand country). They called the surrounding ethnic groups Dongyi(東夷: Eastern Barbarians), Xīrong(西戎: Western Barbarians), Nanman(南蠻: Southern Barbarians), and Beidi(北狄: Northern Barbarians). They demeaned the ethnic group as ‘Four Barbarians(四夷)’ and distinguished it from themselves(Residents in Manchuria and the Korean Peninsula are called Dongyi). But the Chinese academics say: Because the main people of Balhae are Mohe, Balhae was included in 「Beidi」 rather than 「Dongyi」 of 『Old Book of Tang(舊唐書)』 and 『New Book of Tang(新唐書)』, and therefore Balhae is irrelevant to Goguryeo and Silla. However, Mohe is included in 「Dongyi」 of 『Sui Shu(隋書)』 and Buji(勿吉), which is the previous stage of Mohe, is included in 「Dongyi」 of 『Wei Shu(魏書)』. But they do not comment on this.

Haidong was a space of Dong-i. The 'Balhae' in the space is called 'Beidi' is considered to reflect its own history. It is thought that Balhae fought against Tang in association with the Turk and the Georan from the founding process, and divided the international situation in Northeast Asia in solidarity with the northern people. In 「Ji Yi」 of 『Samguk Yusa』, there is a record that 604 envoys of Tang Dynasty who request troops to Silla to punish Beidi came and went(733). This was in response to Balhae's attack on Dengzhou in Tang in 732. At that time, snow fell a lot on the rough road, killing more than half of the Allied forces of Silla-Tang. They withdrew without any merit. But Balhae's attack on Tang is a time ahead of it. It was to help the Georan, that was on the defensive while fighting Tang in the Hebei area. When Madosan Battle occurred after attacking Dengzhou, the expression "They slaughtered everyone in Castle." appeared. The coalition of Balhae-Georan-Turk was so threatening. As such, Balhae was with the 'Beidi' or the ‘Northern people’ from the founding to the former period. Of course, even after that, Balhae was recognized as a very threatening northern force for Tang and Silla.

There were times when the northern peoples were so strong that the traffic network of the land was unstable. At that time, when people went from Tang to Balhae, they went north through Dengzhou and entered the Yalu River from the Liaodong Peninsula. And the images of 'Haibei(海北)' were added to Balhae while annexing all the countries of Haibei such as Buyeo, Okjeo, Ben Han, and Joseon (「Balhae」 of 『New Book of Tang』. In addition, Balhae was a multi-ethnic country, mainly composed of Goguryeo people and Mohe people of the Goguryeo Clan. However, there were many races classified as 'Beidi' such as Heishui Mohe, Shiwei, Georan, Turk, and Uyghur. Although Balhae inherited the space, culture, and human composition of Goguryeo, it expanded its territory to the north and also experienced a great change in culture and human composition. This change would have had a great influence on the formation of 'Beidi' image of Balhae in Tang and Silla.

「King Hyoseong」, 「Ji Yi」 of 『Samguk Yusa』

There is a record of this: 

“604 envoys of Tang Dynasty who request troops to Silla to punish Beidi(Balhae) came and went(733)”

(Source: The National Institute of Korean History)

『Dongmunseon(東文選)』, Author: Choi Chi-won

(Source: Song Gi-ho, ‘History of Balhae’, Kyujanggak Institute for Korean Studies, 2004)

Praise and Contempt: A Common Image in Two Disproportionate Titles

China in the pre-modern era has never understood Balhae as Chinese history at any time. However, China has reestablished the history of babarians in Chinese territory through 'New Chinese Nationalism' and 'Unified Multi-ethnic Country' and solidified it as historical fact. However, this is criticized by academia for its non-historical attitude. On the other hand, it is common sense for us to regard the history of Balhae that succeeded Goguryeo as the history of Korea. However, if we do not continue to study why the history of Goguryeo is our history and why the history of Balhae is our history, this common sense will be an extraordinary thing. Now let's put down common sense for a while and look at people's perceptions at the time. Now is the time to objectively answer the question 'Who is the owner of Balhae history?'

Both titles of 'Haidong Shengguo' and 'Beidi' are not called by Balhae itself. 'Beidi' is a title given by Tang and Silla to thoroughly distinguish Balhae from themselves, and it was a name called Balhae as a barbarian. The meaning of these two titles is very different. But there is a common image of Balhae in these. In other words, these titles show that Balhae is a space and group separated from Tang. Silla tried to lower the status of Balhae and raise their position through the expression 'Beidi' and to be recognized as a civilized country.

Silla called Balhae 'Beidi' and tried to distinguish it from them. But they knew that Tang, the Haixi force, perceived Silla and Balhae as 'Haidong'. And they wouldn't have cared when Balhae was in a lower hierarchy than they were. However, the rapidly growing Balhae attacked the mainland of Tang, expanded its territory to the south, and pressed Silla, and the power of the two countries was reversed. At this time, Silla would have called Balhae the Northern Barbarians, which threatens them. Moreover, as Balhae developed and matured culturally enough to be called "Haedong Sungguk", this perception became stronger. Choi Chi-won of Silla said, "Goguryeo is now Balhae," but said, "Balhae is a humble Sumo Mohe next to Goguryeo." This means that the Balhae people are barbarians who are worse than the Goguryeo people. And it shows the wariness of Silla people about Balhae.

『Study of Balhae Kingdom(渤海考)』, A Book written by Yu Deuk-gong on the History of Balhae in 1784

But Silla did not just despise Balhae. There was an official traffic route called Shillado(新羅道) between the two countries, and when Silla dispatched an envoy, Balhae was called ‘the country of the north(北國)’. However, Silla did not recognize Balhae as a country of the same kind as its own. At that time, there was no national consciousness like today. In order for the consciousness of 'one nation' to be formed, there must be a common historical experience and political integration is necessary. The fact that Balhae and Silla were called 'Haidong' means that China and the two countries were spatially separated. However, the two countries did not experience political integration. However, after the fall of Balhae, the people of Balhae who entered Liao and Jin disappeared to the back of history, but the descendants of the Balhae who surrendered to Goryeo are still alive in this land. And through Goryeo and Joseon period, there has been a trend to understand Balhae as 'Haidong', 'Eastern Country' and 'Our History'. The historical experience that began when Balhae and Silla coexisted led Yu Deuk-gong to write 『Study of Balhae Kingdom(渤海考)』. It also made Balhae and Silla called 'South and North Countries' and made it clear that it was established as our history.