뉴스레터

Upon setting my boat adrift upon the vast blue sea (掛席浮滄海)

A steady wind let it sail for ten thousand ri (長風萬里通)

The above is an excerpt from the poem "Beomhae" (泛海), meaning vast sea, by Choe Chi-won (857~?). This excerpt gained much attention when the Chinese President Xi Jinping quoted it in his welcoming address for the South Korea-China summit in 2013. He also mentioned the verse "Hwagaedong (in Korea) is another world in a gourd bottle" from Choe Chi-won's poem Hwagaedong in his welcoming remarks at the ceremony launching the "Visit China Year" in South Korea. Why then did the Chinese president particularly choose words by Choe Chi-won from the ancient Korean kingdom of Unified Silla as keywords for South Korea-China cultural exchange in the twenty-first century?

A Silla Student's Strenuous Efforts in Tang China

According to a biography of Choe Chi-won included in the record History of the Three Kingdoms, he was from Saryang district of Unified Silla's capital Gyeongju. His father was Choe Gyeon-il (肩逸) and his brother Hyeon-jun (賢俊) was a Buddhist monk who resided at the temple Haeinsa. Having been methodical and smart from a young age, Choe Chi-won was fond of studying. When he was boarding a ship at the age of twelve to be sent away to the Tang dynasty, his father told him that "you will no longer be my son should you fail to pass the Chinese civil service exam, so go and study hard." Those words show the level of expectation and ambition Choe Chi-won's father obviously held toward his son. Near the end of the ancient Korean kingdom Silla, many including Choe Chi-won who went abroad to study in China belonged to the so-called hereditary class of "head rank six." Choe Chi-won accompanied the Silla envoy to Tang as a student and a Silla hostage to Tang and studied at Guozijian, the Tang dynasty's imperial college. After making efforts worth a hundred times more than his fellow students by tying his own hair to the crossbeam and pricking his own thighs with a thorn so as not to fall asleep, Choe Chi-won was able to pass Tang's civil service exam called Jinshike in six years since he began studying.

Leading Role in Korea-China Cultural Exchange

Tang China adopted policies open to foreign students since it was experiencing economic and cultural prosperity. Its capital Chang'an became an international metropolis where merchants from Koguryo, Baekje, Silla, Japan, central Asia, Persia, and Arab flocked to. Such foreigners who traveled back and forth between their home countries and Tang China became involved in cultural exchange among such countries. Over the span of nearly seven decades since 821, Silla sent approximately 40 students over to Tang China and they later played leading roles in terms of Korea-China cultural exchange. Once Choe Chi-won passed the Tang civil service exam and until he became appointed as the official of Xuanzh district's Lishui county, he toured Nakyang and networked with prominent Tang poets such as Luo Yin (羅隱), Gu Yun (顧雲), and Zhang qiao (張喬). That was how Choe Chi-won's name became known in Tang China's literary circle and a list of his works came to be included in Yiwenzhi (藝文志), the biographical records of Xintangshu (新唐書), or the New Book of Tang. As a result of attempting to understand Tang and Silla in the same cultural context, some scholars later quoted the verse "riding a whale to heaven" (騎鯨上天) in one of Li Bai's poems to describe Choe Chi-won as a shixian (詩仙), an immortal poet.

Gyeokhwang soseo, the Manifesto Chastising Huang Chao

While in Tang China, Choe Chi-won witnessed political disorder unfold due to party strifes and dominance by the eunuchs. In 874, Huang Chao rebelled and used the momentum from the rebellion to establish his own country in Chang'an and his reign by hiring Tang officials who surrendered to him. In 880, Choe Chi-won became an assistant to Tang governor-general Gao Pian (高騈) who specialized in suppressing rebellions. Over the next five years, Choe Chi-won carried out tasks of writing and inspection as the governor-general's assistant and it was during this time that he made a name for himself by authoring the famous Gyeokhwang soseo (檄黃巢書), a manifesto chastising Huang Chao. The Tang dynasty suffered a major blow from Huang Chao's rebellion, which led to a state of confusion amid drastic changes to its political circumstances. Silla had also been going through a phase of political turmoil of its own. After returning to Silla in 884, Choe Chi-won authored and dedicated to King Heongang works such as Gyewon pilgyeong jip (桂苑筆耕集), the Cultivated Writings of the Cassia Garden, and a collection of poetry and prose titled Jungsan bokgwe jip (中山覆簣集). Gyewon pilgyeong jip remains as the first collection of personal writings in the history of Korea.

Policy Proposals for Silla's Reform

After returning to Silla, Choe Chi-won authored several works while closely serving the king under literary positions such as Sidok and Saseowon. Until 890, he also held a position within Silla's central government while he was authoring Daesungboksabimyeong (大崇福寺碑銘) and Nanghyehwasangbimyeong (朗慧和尙碑銘). However, during that time, Silla was experiencing nationwide political disorder from revolts by peasants that spread like wild fire and the rivalry between regional clans. What had happened to Tang near its end was also happening to Silla. The central government attempted to gain effective control of its regional counties and prefectures by appointing officials like Choe Chi-won who had experience overseas. By 893, Choe Chi-won was reinstated to a central government position. He thereby drafted a proposal for reform in order to prevent Silla's demise by trying to understand Silla within the context of international politics. The ten or so articles included in his proposal to Queen Jinseong particularly represent his determination toward reform. The king welcomed the proposal and bestowed Choe Chi-won with a government position called Achan. However, as they say he met with "many who doubted him and were reluctant toward him," his proposal for reform was not accepted in reality. His reform met with resistance from aristocrats in the central government, and Queen Jinseong ended up becoming dethroned.

Wandering, Seclusion and the Arrival of a New Era

Choe Chi-won resigned from all his positions and let go of himself as he roamed across forests, rivers, and sea sides. He took his family to the Buddhist temple Haeinsa at Gaya mountain and continued to write in seclusion until the end of his life. His room was full of smoke from burning moxa and he suffered illnesses to the point of "contemplating about cremating his own body to get over with this tiresome life." Even so, he authored his last work titled Suchanggun hogugseong palgagdeungrugi in 908. Samguk sagi, the History of the Three Kingdoms, records that Choe Chi-won tactfully endorsed King Taejo's royal cause through the phrase “Gyerim hwangyeop Gokryeong cheongsong" (鷄林黃葉 鵠嶺靑松), which literally reads as the leaves are yellow in Gyerim and the pine trees in Gokryeong are green. This may have been because he sensed that Taejo would eventually achieve a regime change by establishing the kingdom of Goryeo. He recognized Silla's political fate and tried to overturn it by submitting a proposal for reform. Alas, his dreams of reform crumbled to pieces and Silla disappeared from the stage of history.

Woryeongdae pavilion in Changwon where Choe Chi-won's cottage used to be and Gaya mountain in Hapcheon which was Choe Chi-won's final place of seclusion were popular pilgrimage destinations for scholars during the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties. Many visited the two places and dedicated countless poems as an homage to his spirit. What had they all hoped to find from tracing his footsteps? Since Choe Chi-won has re-emerged as a keyword for Korea-China cultural exchange in the twenty-first century, his passion for scholarly investigation should be rediscovered in addition to his talent as a writer.