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How much do we know about the ancient kingdom of Balhae that existed for 200 years as north and south states from the late 7th to the early 10th centuries along with Silla? Let's start a historical journey, centering on the primary historical records related to Balhae and newly discovered data. It will be interesting to dig out the hidden stories from Balhae history along with the diversity of interpretation and the importance of data.

Balhae, founded at the initiative of Goguryeo migrants, once thrived to such an extent that it was called Haedongseongkuk (lit. flourishing land in the east). However, Balhae could not steer clear of the turbulence of international affairs in East Asia that began in the late 9th century. After all, Balhae had collapsed in January 926 after losing the war that started with the Khitan's attack in 925. What, then, caused Balhae to fail after surviving a shorter period than other countries? Where did the migrants go after the collapse of the country?

Different bird's-eye views of the capital "Horhan Castle" (Dongjing, Ningan, Heilongjiang Province, today's China) at the time of Balhae's collapse

Top: Bird's-eye view of Balhae royal palace in China – historic site of Balhae's Shangjing Longquanfu in Balhae

Bottom: Bird's-eye view of Balhae royal palace in North Korea – Korean Central History Museum

Data related to Balhae

In springtime of the first year of Tianxian (926), on gimi of the first month (the 2nd day), a white energy penetrated the sun. On gyeongsin (the 3rd), Buyeo Castle was captured and the commanders defending the castle were put to death. On byeongin (the 9th), Cheok ordered An Dan and Jeonbukbu chancellor Soagoji to be in the vanguard of 10,000 soldiers who defeated the troops of Nosang under Dae In-seon. The crown prince, commander-in-chief Yogol, Nambu chancellor So, Bukwon Irigeun Sa Naljeok, and Namwon Irigeun Jilri surrounded Horhan Castle that night. On gisa (the 12th), Inseon asked for surrender. On gyeongo (the 13th), troops were stationed south of Horhan Castle. On sinmi (the 14th), having his body tied up with straw in mourning clothes, In-seon surrendered, leading sheep and 300 bureaucrats. His Majesty released him out of courtesy. On gapsul (the 17th), the report was notified to the gun and hyeon localities in Balhae. On byeongja (the 19th), 13 people, including Geunsi Gang Maldal, were sent to the castle to search for weapons but were murdered by patrolling soldiers. On jeongchuk (the 20th), with In-seon's repeated betrayal, soldiers attacked the castle and defeated the enemy. As the royal carriage entered the castle, In-seon asked to be punished in front of a horse. Soldiers were ordered to escort In-seon and his company out, and we returned to our military camp again after performing rites.

天顯元年春正月己未, 白氣貫日. 庚申, 拔扶餘城, 誅其守將. 丙寅, 命惕隱安端、前北府宰相蕭阿古只等將萬騎為先鋒, 遇諲譔老相兵, 破之. 皇太子、大元帥堯骨、南府宰相蘇、北院夷離菫斜涅赤, 南院夷離菫迭里是夜圍忽汗城. 己巳, 諲譔請降. 庚午, 駐軍于忽汗城南. 辛未, 諲譔素服, 稾索牽羊, 率僚屬三百餘人出降. 上優禮而釋之. 甲戌, 詔諭渤海郡縣. 丙子, 遣近侍康末怛等十三人入城索兵器, 為邏卒所害. 丁丑, 諲譔復叛, 攻其城, 破之. 駕幸城中. 諲譔請罪馬前. 詔以兵衞諲譔及族屬以出祭告天地. 復還軍中.

"History of Liao" Volume 2, Benji2, Taizu (Ha)

Full account of Balhae's collapse

It was on December 6, 925 that Abaoji, emperor Taizu of Khitan, launched an attack on Balhae. On the night of leap month December 29, the following month, soldiers besieged Balhae's Buyeo Fuyu, and three days later on January 3, the Buyeo Fortress was taken. Sitting by a traffic route of Balhae and Khitan, Buyeo Fuyu was a strategic point staffed with strong military units, and intended to counter Khitan's invasion. Having hesitated to keep attacking Balhae after occupying Buyeo Fuyu, Khitan's Taizu embarked on an attack on the capital of Balhae. Balhae's main forces, led by Nosang, were defeated, so Balhae's King Dae In-seon, dressed in white, asked to be punished in front of Taizu's horse, having his body tied up with straw and leading sheep. Taizu granted the name of Orogo to Dae In-seon who surrendered, and the name of Ariji to the empress; these were the names of the horses that the Taizu couple rode when Balhae surrendered. It was in this way that Balhae collapsed in humiliation.

Cause of Balhae's collapse ① Misjudgment of East Asian situation from the late 9th to early 10th centuries

Balhae's collapse was caused largely by Balhae's misjudgment of the international situation including Khitan. In East Asia, which had been based on political relationships of tribute and throne appointment, economic relations began to matter as trade became active from the late 8th century. At the same time, there were moves to deny the existing system against the background of military strength from the late 9th century. Tang, the powerhouse in East Asia and the axis of international order, collapsed in 907 and the Korean Peninsula entered the Later Three Kingdoms period. The Khitans were setting their eyes on Balhae, their potential threat in the rear, before Abaoji unified their tribes and made a full-blown foray into the central districts. At the time, the most important factor in international relations was military power rather than politics, but Balhae showed no signs of preparing against this.

Cause of Balhae's collapse ② Khitan's attack based on strong military power

The direct cause of Balhae's collapse was the Khitan attack. Judging from Abaoji's remarks on the cause of attack on Balhae—"At a time when we are failing to revenge Balhae, the enemy for generations, how can we settle for the status quo?"—it was an attempt at vengeance. Balhae was always defending against Khitan by stationing strong units in Buyeo Fuyu, but given that Buyeo Fuyu was the "Khitan Road", one of the main traffic routes, Balhae and Khitan maintained their exchanges. Goryeo founder Wang Geon's statement that "Khitan brought Balhae to the ground, betraying its promise to maintain amicable relations with Balhae ('Goryeosa' 2, winter of 25th year of Taejo, October)," while rejecting Khitan's offer for exchanges, prompts speculation that Balhae and Khitan may have had a mutually friendly alliance. As Abaoji launched strong offensives against Balhae before and after 907 when Khitan was founded, it is presumed that the two countries became mutual enemies. Khitan's military power was as strong as his firm will, and Balhae was no match for Khitan. Khitan's cavalry of 500 defeated Balhae Nosang's 30,000 soldiers in attacks on the capital of Balhae ("History of Liao" 73, Aguzhi).

Cause of Balhae's collapse ③ Laxity within Balhae

The generally accepted cause for Balhae's collapse is division within Balhae. This can be inferred through Khitan's statement, "We moved while capitalizing on the dispersal of minds, so we won without fighting ('History of Liao' 75, Yayukuji)." There are also contentions that Balhae was divided because of the dualistic composition of the society—the ruling class was a minority of Goguryeo people and the subjugated class was a majority of Mohe people—or that the majority of Balhae people's travels to Goryeo in the south before collapse caused Balhae to divide. Yet these are not clear explanations, either, given that there were no ethnic distinctions in Balhae while Balhae existed and after its collapse, and another part of "Goryeosa" also states that the Balhae people crossed over to Goryeo after Balhae's fall. Taking into account that Balhae was not free from rebellions everywhere right after its collapse in January of 926 and that revival movements continued for 200 years thereafter, the theory of Balhae's internal conflict needs to be reconsidered. The dispersal of minds likely refers to the internal atmosphere arising from Balhae's failure to respond to Khitan's mounting military threat properly at a time when East Asia was reorganized on the basis of military power.

People with country lost, a forgotten state

Khitan was always on the lookout for changes in its opponent when it went to war. As when attacking Song, Khitan became aware of Balhae's weaknesses before launching an attack. When Balhae collapsed, unaware of the international circumstances characterized by the law of the jungle, enemies, and its own weaknesses, the Balhae people were left without a country. Some Balhae people complied with Khitan, and the majority of Balhae people were taken away to be the subjugated class. Protesting this, Balhae people conducted the revival movement for 200 years. Tens of thousands of Balhae people fled to the south and became Goryeo people. Balhae's people and Balhae became forgotten in the land where they were and in the countries with which they had interacted. It was not until the 18th century, 800 years later, that they attracted fresh attention again and appeared in records.