뉴스레터

The misunderstanding of the Korea-China relations in the premodern period

In 2017, US President Donald Trump once caused controversy by saying he had heard from Chinese President Xi Jinping that "historically, Korea was part of China." It was not disclosed exactly what Xi Jinping had said. However, in recent decades, the theory of explaining the pre-modern Asian order as a hierarchical and Chinese-centered international order between suzerain and neighboring countries has spread widely in China. With this in mind, it can be assumed that Xi Jinping's remarks may have originated from the perception that the Korean peninsula was a vassal or a dependent state of the Chinese dynasty.

The pre-modern Chinese dynasty, especially the Ming and Qing Dynasty, called Joseon tributary state, waifan(posession outside the border), vassal, vassals' territories, and feudal vassal. Joseon also acknowledged this. This is revealed in historical sources of Korea and China. However, this title does not mean that the countries on the Korean peninsula were part of China. For Ming and Qing, ‘tributary state’ or ‘tributary’ meant that foreign monarchs were autonomously controlled. At the time, the countries had a relationship with China that could be described as 'sovereign and subject'. Ideologically, it was a place where the virtue of the Emperor reached. But it was not the place the emperor actually ruled. In modern terms, it was not the place where the sovereignty of the Chinese emperor affects.

Generally, if the feudal vassal served a large country, the Chinese emperor had a moral obligation to care for and protect a small country. However, these obligations do not mean the duties of the Western powers to protectorate. This does not mean restrictions on the sovereignty of the dependent state. The Chinese dynasty took a passive attitude that prioritized its interests and comfort. They rationalized themselves that they were practicing their duties through diplomatic means that stopped the conflict of vassal states.

Before and after the United States-Korea War of 1871, which took place 150 years ago, their perception is well revealed in the Qing government's response to the conflict between Joseon and Western powers. Let's look at the Qing government's response to the conflict between Joseon and the Western powers before and after the United States-Korea War of 1871. Then we can see the perception of Qing. The Qing government was practicing 'duty', but it was not a suzerain to protect 'feudal vassal'. Moreover, it was far from recognizing Joseon as ‘a part’ of the Qing Dynasty.

An Analysis of Qing on the Relationship between Joseon and Qing after Opium War (1840–1842)

The Qing dynasty called itself the Celestial Empire until the late 19th century. And the countries that have diplomatic relations with them are called feudal vassal or tributary states. In the view of Qing Dynasty, European countries such as the Netherlands and Portugal were also included in the category of tributary states. But changes have been made since Qing's defeat to Britain in the Opium War. Qing had to admit that Western countries such as Britain, the United States, and France were sovereign states in an equal position with them and signed with the treaty of friendship and commerce. Nevertheless, Qing Dynasty tried to maintain authority over these countries when the tributary states such as Joseon and Ryukyu refused to trade with the West and requested the help of Qing Dynasty, saying that they did not engage in private relations with foreign countries that guard the territory of the supreme ruler.

They asked for Qing. Let the Western ships not force us to do trade and mission. So the Daoguang di of Qing claimed: "The Qing Dynasty has signed 『Treaty of Nanking』, 『Treaty of Whampoa』 and 『Treaty of Wangxia』 with Western countries. The treaty stipulated that Westerners should not be allowed to engage in commercial and missionary activities except five commercial ports, including Guangzhou. Therefore, Westerners can not do trade and mission in Joseon and Ryukyu, which are the 'feudal vassal' of Qing."

Daoguang di ordered Qi ying, who was responsible for negotiations with the West. Persuade them not to cause a disturbance in the 'feudal vassal of the supreme ruler'. Their claims were not ineffective, but shortly afterwards it was ignored by the UK and France. The Qing government realized that recommendations and persuasions for Westerners were useless. Then they asked the ‘feudal vassal’ to be polite and welcome to the Westerners to avoid the conflict. And they gradually took an attitude that did not interfere with the problem between 'feudal vassal' and the West. And they gradually became uninvolved in the problems between 'feudal vassal' and the West.

In this atmosphere, the Treaty of Tientsin(1858) was signed to permit Westerners to travel and missionary activities. And the Convention of Peking(1860) was also signed. So Qing was in a difficult situation. In the past, the dominant claimed that 'Joseon is a feudal vassal of the supreme ruler, so Westerners can not do trade and mission under various treaties. According to the past logic, Westerners now had to be allowed to travel and mission to Korea in accordance with the Treaty of Tientsin. However, Qing Dynasty did not want to demean itself of 'supreme ruler' by talking about things that Joseon could not accept.

The Zongli Yamen(總理衙門) was a newly established institution in Beijing dedicated to diplomacy with the West. French missionaries asked the Minister from the France to Qing to issue a pass and send an official letter to the Joseon Dynasty. To reject this, The Zongli Yamen claimed: "Joseon is a country that pays tribute to Qing. However, they decide internal affairs or international issues independently; therefore, Qing Dynasty cannot force Joseon to accept missionaries." In other words, Joseon is a separate country that can not exercise the sovereignty of the Qing, so it is not subject to the Treaty of Tientsin signed by the Qing and the Western powers.

This argument began shortly after the publication of the 『Elements of International Law(萬國公法)』(1864). This is China's first systematic translation of international law, which states that if a country does not affect the sovereignty of a tributary state(feudal vassal), it is considered an independent sovereign state. And from this time on, The Zongli Yamen repeatedly declared that Qing can not interfere with Joseon because Joseon is the feudal vassal of Qing and self-governing country. According to The Zongli Yamen, this claim is based on the intention of preventing Western forces from entering Joseon.

However, the claim of Qing Dynasty, which is a 'feudal vassal but self-governing country', was used to exclude the interference of Qing at the time of Byungin Yangyo in 1866. H. D. Bellonett, the Minister from the France to Qing, declared. "Joseon persecutes Catholics and kills French missionaries, so we invade Joseon. In the past, the Qing Dynasty has avoided responsibility for Joseon by calling Joseon a self-governing country, so Qing can not intervene in the war between France and Joseon."

At the time, Qing was defeated in the Second Opium War, and was suffering the Taiping Rebellion, the Nian Rebellion, and Hui Rebellion. They were wary of not being involved in new conflicts related to Joseon, so they could not strongly refute the French claim. They suggested that "we will mediate the conflict between France and Joseon on a humanitarian level" but were ignored by France. In fact, Qing was helping Joseon. They told Joseon to prepare for France's invasion, but not to ask for military help. Also, they refuted Bellonett's accusation that the Qing Dynasty secretly helped Joseon was not true. The Zongli Yamen argued that the Qing government is not interfering at all in the Joseon issue, except for the formal ritual.

Attitudes toward Joseon Issues of Qing Dynasty around the United States-Korea War of 1871

King Joseon wrote an official letter. He explained the General Sherman incident that caused the United States-Korea War of 1871 and asked the Qing to prevent the demands of Westerners to trade with Joseon. It arrived in Beijing in November 1866. At this time, the Qing received notice from France: the French fleet blocked the Joseon coast, and said they would begin the war within a few days. And the British and Americans were killed during the General Sherman incident, and there was a rumor that the two countries would join forces with France to invade Joseon.

The Zongli Yamen told the emperor that these information should be informed to the Joseon Dynasty. And as Joseon wanted, it was impossible for Qing to prevent the trade with Westerners and Joseon. The Zongli Yamen asked the emperor to inform the Joseon Dynasty of these information. And as Joseon wanted, it was impossible for Qing to prevent the trade with Westerners and Joseon. They argued that Joseon should compromise with the Western powers before the situation worsens by calculating profits and gains. They avoided responsibility: "Everything is the decision of the Joseon government itself; it cannot be forced by the Qing Dynasty."

Since then, Qing has delivered various kinds of rumors to Joseon. It is information that France will invade Joseon again, rumors about the possibility of Britain and the United States invading Joseon, and Seikaron(征韓論) of Jun Hachinohe(八戶順叔). Britain and the United States demanded that the Joseon government search for survivors in the General Sherman incident and return them to their countries. The Qing actively mediated between them and Joseon to prevent the deterioration of the situation. This was interpreted from the standpoint of the Qing as 'caring for and protecting a small country'. Qing was concerned that Joseon would be attacked again by Britain and the United States.

But Qing emphasized to Western countries, Joseon is a self-governing country, so we can't interfere with affairs of state in Joseon. They maintained the attitude that ‘we had nothing to do with it’. In the end, this attitude led the United States to choose direct action against Joseon without negotiating through Qing. And in December 1870, F. F. Low(Minister from the United States to Qing) was warned to the Qing Dynasty. "We will depart for Joseon with the fleet dispatched by our home country." At that time, the Zongli Yamen failed to block it. They only informed the Joseon Dynasty of the fact, so that Joseon could prepare in advance.

Even after the United States-Korea War of 1871 took place in 1871, the situation did not change much. After the engagement with the United States, the Joseon government sent an official letter to Beijing to explain the progress of war in detail. And the Joseon emphasized that it has no intention of trading with the United States. The Joseon Dynasty requested the Qing. The emperor of Qing ordered the ‘American envoy’ to abandon negotiations with Joseon and not to cause disputes.

On the other hand, F. F. Low presented evidence to the Qing that Joseon had requested Qing's help as feudal vassal. He refuted claim of the Zongli Yamen that Qing could not interfere with the Joseon issue. And he asked the Qing to mediate between the United States and Joseon.

The demands of Joseon and the United States were different. The head of the Zongli Yamen, Prince Gong(恭親王) pointed out. "The United States uses the expression 'feudal vassal' to pressure China to put Joseon on, so they try to move Joseon on their own will. And Joseon also uses the expression 'feudal vassal': Joseon hopes China will curb the United States and protect them." In addition, Gong said, both of them are suspected of intent to put responsibility on China. Therefore, China should mediate the dispute at a reasonable level and only recommend that the United States not go back to Joseon. He said China should no longer intervene and be used by the two countries.

In short, the traditional perception that Qing should practice the obligation to 'care for and protect a small country' as 'the Celestial Empire' has continued steadily. However, their intention was not to actively protect 'feudal vassal' but to avoid disputes between 'feudal vassal' and other countries.

It’s a matter of how you see it

The historical relationship between China and neighboring countries was quite different from the Western sovereign system formed in a different cultural background from East Asia. During that time, the heterogeneous East Asian premodern order was explained in accordance with the Western international order. In the 1840s, Daoguang di argued that Joseon was a 'feudal vassal', so Joseon was a country that had to apply the treaty signed with the West. However, the Qing dynasty around the United States-Korea War of 1871 did not regard Joseon as a part of China. Rather, the Qing Dynasty tried to distance itself from Joseon. Joseon declared itself an independent state(sovereign states) separate from the Qing dynasty. And in the 1880s, Qing Dynasty strengthened the interference of Joseon by re-emphasizing the status of Joseon as a 'tributary state'.

The relationship that cares for and protects a small country in exchange for serving a large country was arbitrarily reinterpreted as needed in the modern international law order. If we look at the politicians and Chinese academic discussions mentioned in the beginning of this article, this phenomenon seems to continue. It is argued that the Korean Peninsula was part of China. This is based on the so-called 'zong fan' relationship, which can not be said to be based on historical facts. It is only a arbitrary interpretation, stemming from their realistic intentions.