뉴스레터

Ro Myoung-ho Professor,
Seoul National University

The global and Northeast Asian regional power dynamics have been undergoing fast chances since the dawn of the 21st century. History shows us that there have been many cases in which countries have either gone down the path of stability and prosperity or that of decline and collapse depending on how it responded to changes in regional and international orders. Korean history is no exception. Moreover, dissension among domestic factions has sometimes led to internal strife in times of rapid changes in the international order. There is sharp division concerning foreign affairs in 21st-century Korea. Given that the division is based on ideological differences, the confrontation is expected to be protracted.

While global situations and ideologies have varied from one period to another, there are many examples from history that clearly demonstrate—from beginning to end—the process by which ideologies influence perceptions of international relations. For instance, the wide range of cultural diversity that existed during the Goryeo period led to dramatic variations spanning one extreme to another in the perception of international affairs among divergent ideological factions. This was especially pronounced during the reign of King Seongjong.

Supporters of Sinocentrism were in power when Goryeo was faced with a major challenge in August 993 CE (12th year of King Seongjong's reign). Three months earlier, the Goryeo court had received a tip from the Jurchen that the Khitan had raised an army. The court, however, concluded that the tip was a frabrication. When Khitan forces did launch an attack, the Goryeo court found itself in a state of panic. The flustered supporters of Sinocentrism proposed two solutions. One was to surrender to the Khitan. The other was to appease the Khitan by giving them the land north of Seogyeong (Pyeongyang). King Seongjong was partial to the latter. Goryeo, which had been dealing effectively with the threat of the Khitan since its founding by Wang Geon, found itself in a tight spot. This was fundamentally due to the foreign affairs policy of the supporters of Sinocentrism.

Why Goryeo was powerless against the Khitan attack during King Seongjong's reign

Supporters of Sinocentrism considered Tang, Song, and other dynasties founded by the Han Chinese to comprise China, the center of the universe. They argued that Goryeo, as one of the barbarian kingdoms bordering China, must pursue peace in accordance with the decorum dictated by "Serving a superior¡±. They considered local cultural traditions to be lowly and rejected them completely while regarding Confucianism and other aspects of Han Chinese culture as elevated. Therefore, they pushed for the rapid adoption of Han culture. Supporters of Sinocentrism were especially encouraged when in 979 the Song dynasty unified Han Chinese dynasties that had been divided since the early 10th century. Supporters of Sinocentrism came into power with the accession of Seongjong to Goryeo's throne, and they prioritized "Serving a superior¡± relations with the Song dynasty above all else. However, Song's sphere of influence was limited to the southern regions of continental East Asia. In the north, the Khitan continued their territorial expansion, reaching the lower reaches of Amnok River by the early years of King Seongjong's rule.

In contrast, Wang Geon, the founder of Goryeo dynasty and a believer of a multi-polar universe, judged that a clash with the Khitan was inevitable. He rallied the Jurchen tribes in northeastern Manchuria and Balhae migrant groups to form an alliance against the Khitan. He declared himself emperor and served as the leader of this alliance, putting a lot of time and energy into defending against the Khitan.

Wang Geon's successors continued Wang's policy against the Khitan. However, with Seongjong's rise to the throne, supporters of Sinocentrism came to power, stifling the supporters of a multipolar view of the world. Supporters of Sinocentrism did away with all defense measures set up against a potential Khitan attack even though the threat posed by the Khitan was only growing. Almost immediately after coming to power, supporters of Sinocentrism did away with the title emperor for the king of Goryeo, citing the dictates of sadae as the reason. They also dissolved the alliance against the Khitan and either antagonized or distanced Goryeo from Jurchen groups. They also dramatically decreased Goryeo's military forces. Choi Seung-ro, a supporter of Sinocentrism and a high-ranking government official, even proposed that government forces should be withdrawn from the northern border and be replaced by a completely local defense force. Weapons held by local forces to defend against outside attacks were collected, melted down, and turned into farming tools.

By putting too much weight on their adherence to ideology, supporters of Sinocentrism overlooked an important fact about international relations. Following ideology, they focused only on the Song dynasty's unification and growth and either ignored or denied the rapid expansion and looming threat of the Khitan. As a result, Goryeo was not mentally or militarily prepared when attacked by the Khitan. In the confusion, the supporters of Sinocentrism did not properly assess the situation before proposing response measures, which did not provide a way out of the crisis but would lead to Goryeo's downfall.

The plan to offer the Khitan a part of Goryeo's territory was shot down by sharp criticisms from Lee Ji-baek, Seo Hui, and others championing a multipolar view of the world. Seo Hui also went to the Khitan for direct negotiations. He was able to determine the Khitan's motivation behind the invasion, and thus, Goryeo was able to avert a major crisis. That is, even in the face of a critical crisis, a way out could be devised by an accurate and penetrating assessment of the situation.

A society deteriorates without competing ideas

What happened in Goryeo during the reign of King Seongjong was not an exceptional case in Korean history. Ideological excess leads to an overreliance on ideology, blinding us from reality and what is truly important. When ideological excess becomes a chronic condition, we deny and even distort the truth in order to justify our stance or policy. International relations can determine a country's rise or doom. As such, a country may sustain major losses if there is inadequate awareness of what is going on. Worse yet is the denial or distortion of reality, which can put a country in grave danger.

The problem is not ideologies per se but ideological excess—i.e., putting ideology before reality. An ideology is a system of viewing the world, country, people, and culture. It pursues important values. Therefore, ideologies have important implications for their respective periods. Moreover, competing ideas enrich discussions on a given topic and serve to broaden perspectives, thereby laying a foundation for better solutions to problems. A society without disagreements, discussions, and competition is prone to deterioration and enfeeblement.

The intellectuals of Goryeo left behind a sizeable volume of texts in which they express pride in Goryeo's advanced position in Northeast Asia. In fact, Goryeo had caught up with the Han Chinese dynasties in many areas and even surpassed them in some fields. Goryeo's accomplishments owe themselves to competing ideas. There were adherents of a multi-polar view of the world. Some supported Sinocentrism, while others advocated the pursuit of national self-interests. Most of Goryeo's achievements were realized when followers of competing ideas prioritized the truth and engaged in communication and collaboration.